Browsing by Author "Short, Lester L."
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Item Behavioral notes on the nest-parasitic Afrotropical honeyguides (Aves, Indicatoridae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2825(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1985) Short, Lester L.; Horne, Jennifer F. M."New data from field studies of Afrotropical honeyguides, examination of label data from specimens in most of the major collections having honeyguides, and review of the literature are bases for updating the biology of Afrotropical honeyguides, last treated by Friedmann (1955). Three species (Prodotiscus zambesiae, Indicator meliphilus, and I. narokensis) have been elevated from subspecific status, and two new species (Melignomon eisentrauti, and Indicator pumilio) have been described since 1955. Emphasizing habitat, foraging habits, foods, interspecific behavior, acoustic and visual displays, hosts, and territoriality and breeding habits, new insights are provided into honeyguide biology, although much remains to be accomplished, and the biology of some species is virtually unknown. Honeyguiding habits seem restricted to Indicator indicator. At least some honeyguides (I. indicator, I. variegatus, and I. minor) are aggressive about sources of beeswax, with a dominance hierarchy inter- and intraspecifically. Exact pair relations largely remain to be elucidated, but evidence is presented that there is cooperation between individuals, hence extended pair bonds, assisting female honeyguides to enter well-defended nests of their hosts. Some lesser honeyguide (I. minor) males seek out duetting pairs of their barbet hosts, monitor them, and defend them against conspecific male honeyguides. Honeyguides parasitizing barbets monitor barbet activities about the barbets' roosting or nesting holes even in the nonbreeding periods. A nestling honeyguide (I. minor) was seen making its initial departure from its host's (Stactolaema anchietae) nest; a host barbet arriving to feed it shifted recognition from that of a (foster) nestling to that of a 'honeyguide,' and immediately and violently attacked the young honeyguide, which was driven out of the barbets' territory. Young honeyguides essentially must be able to fend for themselves when they exit from the nest. The destruction of the host's eggs or young, by the laying female honeyguide or later by the young honeyguide, is important to insure that the nestling honeyguide secures maximum feeding. The same lesser honeyguide situation involving that nestling provided evidence of continual monitoring of the nest by one and sometimes two lesser honeyguides right up until the fledging of the young honeyguide. The sight and sound of adult honeyguides thus may be familiar to a young honeyguide even before it leaves the hosts' nest. New vocal and visual displays are described for a number of honeyguides. For the sake of completeness, full lists of honeyguide hosts are provided for each species, and the information provided effectively summarizes what is known of Afrotropical honeyguides in 1984"--P. [1]-2.Item A comparative analysis of acoustical signals in pied woodpeckers (Aves, Picoides). Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 160, article 1(New York : American Museum of Natural History, 1978) Winkler, Hans, 1945-; Short, Lester L."The avian genus Picoides with 33 species is the largest of the nearly worldwide family of woodpeckers (Picidae). Picoides is the subject of vocal analysis involving field, literature, and audiospectrographic studies. Analyzable data were available for two-thirds of the species. The analyses were conducted using quantitative and qualitative techniques, in a manner attempting isolation of descriptive, functional, motivational, and homologous aspects of acoustical signal communication. Vocalizations include Call Notes, Scolding Call, Double Call, Rattle Call, Short Rattle Call, Mistle Thrush Call, Mutter Call, Kweek Call, Wicka Call, Twitter Call, Wad Call, Soft Notes, Distress Trill, Chirp Call, Loud Chirp Call, Squeak Call, Screech Call, and Distress Cry, and there are several instrumental signals (Drumming, Tapping, Wing Rustling). These are described and many are illustrated sonagraphically for species represented by tape-recordings. Summaries are provided for all vocal and instrumental signals that have several or more species represented. Most sounds made by these woodpeckers are formed of three major elements: clicking, squeaking, and ascending sounds. When further data become available, these elements may provide a productive means of analyzing the vocalizations. Aspects of the repertoire briefly discussed are the number and quality of calls, their discreteness, overall tendencies in structure, relative frequency of different calls, and combinations. Each major acoustical signal is discussed functionally, in terms of its 'meaning' and the biological advantages it affords. The array of such signals includes calls that may overlap in function, but differ in occurrence, the distance at which they are effective, and other parameters. Drumming and the Rattle Call are the most important long-distance signals. Call Notes chiefly are contact calls. Rattle Calls function in territorial announcement and defense, but may serve as a contact call in some species. Sexual interactions of various kinds are accompanied by Kweek Calls, with special functions in P. medius and P. borealis. Wicka, Mutter, and Twitter calls mark encounters between individuals and often accompany visual displays. Wad Calls commonly occur between members of a pair. Various nestling and fledgling calls are ascribed functions. Drumming has diverse and often subtle functions, and may differ in structure and function seasonally. It differs from most avian signals in communicating over a distance, aspects of environmental features, e.g., the occurrence of suitable trees for Drumming or nesting. Motivation of the signals is discussed in a framework based on a general arousal scheme and dominance behavior that is directly equivalent to 'aggressive' behavior ethologically. The Call Note indicates arousal, Scolding -- alarm, and Rattle Calls -- aggression, in this context. Kweek Calls of one type usually are submissive; those of another, as well as Wicka Calls, are aggressive. Conflicts between fleeing and aggression find expression in the Mutter and the Twitter Calls, and between aggression and submission in the Wad Call. Hunger, the motivation to flee, or to stay in place usually seem involved in the Squeak Call. Drumming seems related to a special category of motivation with a low threshold that may be elicited by extraneous noises or the presence of a Drumming substrate. An attempt is made to ascribe likely meanings to the signals, based on their information content. Call Notes indicated the location of the sender, and particularly are noted with changes in position. The Rattle Call is self-assertive or aggressive and transmits that information plus the location of the signaler. Scolding and Short Rattle Calls indicate alarm, and convey that meaning. The complex of Mutter, Twitter, Kweek, and Wicka calls give varied information about the sender's motivational state during interactions. Further analysis is necessary to decipher exact meanings, which depend in any event on the social relations existing between interacting individuals. Other calls and instrumental signals are discussed in a similar manner. Homologies are treated, based on similarities in form and the relation of calls to other calls, displays and situations; evolutionary and ontogenetic effects are related to homology within pied woodpeckers, and to some degree with other picid groups. Some acoustical signals, notably Drumming and Scolding, but even Rattle Calls and Call Notes are effective interspecifically in Picoides, between pied woodpeckers and species of diverse woodpecker genera, and occasionally between pied woodpeckers and birds of other families. Taxonomic applications of the data include as major points the monophyly of the genus Picoides sensu Short (1971a), close relationship of arcticus and tridactylus to the villosus subgroup, monophyly of the American group of Picoides, the distinctness and derived state of medius, and of the major group, and the likelihood that the most primitive members of the genus are to be found in Asia among relatives of the moluccensis and canicapillus groups. Vocalizations are described for two hybrid combinations, major x syricus and scalaris x nuttallii, and are more or less intermediate between those of the parental species"--P. 5-6.Item The evolution of terrestrial woodpeckers. American Museum novitates ; no. 2467(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1971) Short, Lester L."Woodpeckers are very specialized for arboreal life. Despite their specializations for climbing, nesting, and foraging in trees, more than 12 species forage regularly on the ground and three are essentially terrestrial. Terrestriality has evolved as a secondary feature, and aspects of terrestrial adaptation, as well as of possible preadaptive ancestral woodpecker features that have benefited ground woodpeckers, are discussed. The evolution of walking from hopping, the adoption of ground nesting, the trends toward brown color and dorsal barring, the reduced massiveness of the skull, the development of a curved, long, thin bill, and other morphological adaptations are also discussed. Behavioral adaptations include the evolution of voices that are louder and carry farther, 'flash' color patterns, greater sociality, reduction of sexual regonition markings, and other adaptations. Preadaptations include ant-eating habits, and the ability of the woodpeckers to excavate cavities for nesting. Ground-foraging but arboreally nesting woodpeckers are variously intermediate between arborally specialized woodpeckers and the fully terrestrial Geocolaptes olivaceus of Africa, and Colaptes rupicola and C. campestris of South America. The arboreal specializations of the ancestors of ground woodpeckers have benefited them in adapting to terrestrial life"--P. [1].Item Habits and interactions of North American three-toed woodpeckers (Picoides arcticus and Picoides tridactylus). American Museum novitates ; no. 2547(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1974) Short, Lester L."Field studies of the little-known black-backed three-toed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) and the northern three-toed woodpecker (P. tridactylus) during part of a breeding season in northern New York yielded much new information about the habits of the former species and some comparative data regarding the latter. Both species occur in the vicinity of spruce bogs where arcticus is more conspicuous and generally dominant over tridactylus. Picoides arcticus forages in dead trees, especially low dense or fallen trees, and tridactylus in live evergreen trees, generally higher up. The foraging sounds of arcticus were louder than those of tridactylus. Nest excavation, brooding, nest sanitation, and the feeding and behavior of nestlings are discussed for P. arcticus. Nestlings called almost continuously throughout the day. The female fed the young more often than did the male, but the male carried more food items per trip, and performed most of the nest sanitation. There are two distinct forms of drumming in P. tridactylus, both slower in tempo than the drumming of arcticus; drumming of these species is compared with four other sympatric woodpeckers. A kyik call (call note), screech call, five calls of a yeh call complex, kyik-ek call, snarl call, rattle call, and distinctive scream-rattle-snarl call are described for arcticus. Calls of tridactylus discussed are the pik (call note), the rattle, and the kweek. Vocalizations of these picids are compared, and the comparison is extended to closely related (and sympatric) P. villosus and P. pubescens. Three bill positioning postures, a hunched posture, crest raising display, head bobbing display, head swinging display, wing spreading display, flutter aerial display, and tail spreading display are described for one or both three-toed woodpeckers. Conspecific interactions, encounters between tridactylus and arcticus and conflicts of arcticus with villosus and other species are discussed. The data support the relationship of arcticus and tridactylus with the North American assemblage of Picoides. They further suggest that tridactylus has diverged less, and arcticus more from their common ancestor. Specialization of arcticus as it evolved in a milieu of related North American congeners probably was a factor permitting tridactylus to invade North America successfully from Eurasia in the recent past"--P. 3.Item Habits of some Asian woodpeckers (Aves, Picidae). Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 152, article 5(New York : [American Museum of Natural History], 1973) Short, Lester L."The behavior of Asian woodpeckers is little known, although Asia is rich in woodpeckers, with as many as 13 species sympatric at a single locality (several places in lowland Malaya). Results of field studies conducted February to May, 1972, in India, Thailand, and Malaya are reported herein. New data on the habits, and especially the vocalizations of 29 species representing 14 genera (a fifteenth Asian genus, Sapheopipo, is discussed in a separate publication) compose the major portion of this treatise in which I discuss the following species: Picumnus innominatus, Sasia abnormis, Picoides moluccensis, P. canicapillus, P. macei, P. cathpharius, P. darjellensis, Celeus (Micropternus) brachyurus, Dryocopus javensis, Picus miniaceus, P. puniceus, P. chlorolophus, P. mentalis, P. flavinucha, P. vittatus (including viridamus), P. squamatus, P. canus, Dinopium rafflesii, D. javanense, Chrysocolaptes lucidus, Gecinulus viridis, Blythipicus rubiginosus, B. pyrrhotis, Reinwardtipicus (Chrysocolaptes) validus, Meiglyptes tukki, M. tristis, Hemicircus concretus, H. canente, and Mulleripicus pulverulentus. Aspects of their biology treated include foraging modes, foraging sites, displays, vocalizations and instrumental signals, breeding behavior, and habitat preference. More than 100 vocalizations and instrumental signals are described, mostly based on analysis of tape recordings. For the first time the nesting of Dinopium rafflesii is reported. Interspecific behavior is documented for various species, including competitive interactions between Picoides canicapillus and P. macei, between Picus miniaceus and P. puniceus, and between Dryocopus javensis and Mulleripicus pulverulentus. Behavioral comparisons are made on a worldwide basis, but taxonomic implications of behavior are discussed elsewhere. A brief discussion section focuses on ecological aspects of the species studied, in particular those of variations in size, with respect to sympatry, allopatry, and ant-foraging habits"--P. 257.Item Habits of three endemic West Indian woodpeckers (Aves, Picidae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2549(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1974) Short, Lester L."The Antillean piculet (Nesoctites micromegas), the Guadeloupe (Melanerpes herminieri), and Hispaniolan woodpeckers (M. striatus), little known, endemic West Indian woodpeckers, were studied during March, 1973. The piculet ranges widely on Hispaniola, in suitably dense undergrowth, mainly gleaning for insects more like a passerine species than a woodpecker. Five calls are described, including the piping call employed in antiphonal calling. Meager data on displays are presented. I advocate the tribal separation of monotypic Nesoctites (in the Nesoctitini) from other piculets (Picumnini). The Guadeloupe woodpecker, endemic to Guadeloupe, and the only picid in the Lesser Antilles, occurs in pairs mainly in western Guadeloupe. It forages diversely for insects and probably fruits. Regular drumming and demonstration drumming and wa and chur calls are described and compared with those of other melanerpine species. The Guadeloupe woodpecker may be related to Melanerpes portoricensis or to continental species of the M. chrysauchen complex. Sharing Hispaniola with the Antillean piculet is the much larger Hispaniolan woodpecker, a variably social species that partly nests colonially and even may engage in communal nesting activity (nest sharing by birds other than a pair). The Hispaniolan woodpecker's varied vocalizations are described. Demonstration drumming occurs sporadically near the nest site. Bowing and swinging are the two most conspicuous displays, rendered separately and in different circumstances. A bill directing posture, a bill raised posture, a gliding dihedral flight display, and courtship feeding also are described, and wing flicking possibly is a display. Up to 19 nests were found in a colony, but most Hispaniolan woodpeckers probably nest in solitary pairs or in small, loose colonies of two or three pairs. Large colonies often are destroyed by humans who consider the birds a pest because of their depredations on fruits. Within colonies pairs defend variable areas near their nest. Helpers occurred at several nests. Communal nesting tendencies are indicated by one bird feeding at two nests, and by lack of teritoriality between some pairs nesting almost side-by-side. Young are fed both indirectly through regurgitation (probably of small insects), and directly (held in the bill), involving large insects and berries. Courtship feeding birds also utilize both feeding methods. The taxonomy of this woodpecker is assessed on its behavior, ecology, zoogeography, and external morphology. The evidence derived from these, points to the melanerpine relationship of this picid, contradicting evidence (Olson, 1972) from a few functionally obscure anatomical features purported to indicate that it is not so related. A brief consideration of the melanerpine woodpeckers, including the genera Xiphidiopicus, Melanerpes and Sphyrapicus, provides a framework for discussion and treatment of the Hispaniolan woodpecker within Melanerpes (M. striatus)--P. 3.Item Hybridization in the flickers (Colaptes) of North America. Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 129, article 4(New York : [American Museum of Natural History], 1965) Short, Lester L."Information is presented concerning the relationships, ecology, and behavior of North American flickers, Colaptes auratus, including the subspecies groups auratus, cafer, chrysoïdes, chrysocaulosus, and mexicanoïdes. 2. The situation of hybridization between the auratus and cafer groups of Colaptes auratus is analyzed, with the use of color and mensural characters. The hybrid zone, including the area in which 95 per cent or more of the flickers are hybrids, is a broad band of variable width extending from British Columbia eastward to Alberta and southward and eastward from there to Texas. 3. Evidence is presented for the occurrence of introgression in populations of auratus and cafer. Diminishing effects of hybridization are detectable in populations of auratus to the Atlantic Ocean, and cafer to the Pacific Ocean and Mexico. 4. Color characters used in the study were found to be somewhat correlated in hybrids but not to an extent invalidating their use as separate characters. No evidence for assortative mating was found in a study of the mating patterns of a limited number of hybrid pairs. 5. Localized hybridization occurs between the cafer and chrysoïdes groups. Considerable introgression has occurred, although the hybrids are found largely in hybrid swarms, more or less geographically isolated from parental populations. Some hybrid swarms have undergone partial stabilization. Evidence is offered that indicates that genes from eastern auratus populations, introgressing into the western cafer populations, are able to enter the chrysoïdes population as a result of the hybridization between cafer and chrysoïdes. 6. An attempt is made to trace the history of the hybrid situations in North American flickers. The hypothesis is developed that chrysoïdes originated in Baja California as an isolated cafer population. Hybridization between auratus and cafer has apparently occurred over a long period. Hybridization between cafer and chrysoïdes is thought to be of more recent occurrence. 7. Introgression was probably of major importance for the survival of some animal species in the Pleistocene and is probably a factor in their present success under conditions of constant human modification of the environment. 8. Selection, isolating mechanisms, and reinforcement are discussed in terms of the advantages of gene exchange between populations. Criteria are discussed for determination of the taxonomic status of hybridizing populations, including (a) hybridization along a broad area of contact between populations with strongly developed and those with poorly developed, or nondeveloped, isolating mechanisms; (b) hybridization along narrow contacts, involving populations exhibiting strongly and weakly developed isolating mechanisms; and (c) both ordinary and stabilized hybrid swarms, geographically isolated from their parental populations. 9. The North American flickers are considered to be conspecific. Five subspecies groups of the species Colaptes auratus are recognized. These are auratus, cafer, chrysoïdes, mexicanoïdes, and chrysocaulosus"--P. 421.Item A new genus and species of gooselike swan from the Pliocene of Nebraska. American Museum novitates ; no. 2369(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1969) Short, Lester L.Item Notes on a collection of birds from the Paraguayan chaco. American Museum novitates ; no. 2597(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1976) Short, Lester L.; Unger, Jacob."Systematic, distributional, molt, and breeding data are provided for 723 specimens obtained from the collection of Jacob Unger, mainly in the vicinity of Lichtenau in the Paraguayan chaco. The specimens represent 180 species, including four (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus, Leptasthenura platensis, Pseudocolopteryx acutipennis, and Aimophila strigiceps) reported for the first time from Paraguay based on this collection. The status of the tinamou Nothura 'chacoensis' is discussed, and warrants treatment as a subspecies of N. maculosa. A problematical nighthawk specimen is assigned tentatively to Chordeiles minor panamensis >< neotropicalis, and certainly represents a Middle American or Colombian population. The first western Paraguayan hybrid flickers (Colaptes campestris campestris X campestroides) are described. Data are presented on the features and polymorphism of the woodpecker Dryocopus schulzi. Agriornis microptera microptera winters northward from Patagonia to the Paraguayan chaco and Cochabamba, Bolivia. Anthus chacoensis is noted as a valid species, with a breeding range indicated for the first time (Cordoba, Argentina). The status of many subspecies is discussed"--P. [1].Item Notes on the habits of some Argentine and Peruvian woodpeckers (Aves, Picidae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2413(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1970) Short, Lester L."Some habits of 18 species of Argentine and Peruvian woodpeckers are reported. Particularly noteworthy is the communal nesting of Melanerpes cruentatus, at least 11 individuals of which fed young at three nest sites, with some adults feeding at all three sites. Factors, such as foraging mode and food utilized, are considered with respect to the sympatric occurence of woodpeckers (including five additional species the habits of which are not reported here) in parts of those two countries. From one-quarter to one-half the species of woodpeckers at each locality visited are primarily ant-foragers. Arboreal ant-foraging species are virtually restricted to the tropics and subtropics, accounting in part for the reduction in number of woodpeckers in temperate South America. The species fall into six, rather well-defined categories of size. Primarily ant-foraging species fall without exception into the two central (small, medium) categories of size. Three species occurring in Patagonian forests are separated by great size gaps. Similarly sized species either differ considerably in habits, or are allopatric in their distribution. The latter include a number of groups of closely related species (forming superspecies)"--P. 35-36.Item Relationships among the four species of the superspecies Celeus elegans (Aves, Picidae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2487(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1972) Short, Lester L."Four allospecies (semispecies auct.), castaneus, elegans, lugubris, and flavescens comprise the superspecies Celeus (elegans) elegans. These species share basic color patterns, bill structure, and proportions setting them apart from related species of Celeus. Celeus lugubris frequently has been merged in C. flavescens, but these two species approach each other closely in their distribution without apparent interbreeding. In contrast, at least two hybrids of C. lugubris x C. elegans, which barely meet in Mato Grosso, indicate their close relationship. Celeus flavescens ochraceus meets and overlaps somewhat with C. elegans jumana in northeastern Brazil without interbreeding. Celeus castaneus a monotypic Middle American species is related most closely to C. elegans, although showing some peculiar features. Celeus flavescens probably is an older, and C. lugubris a somewhat younger, independent derivative of an ancestor in common with C. elegans. Variation in C. elegans, C. flavescens, and C. lugubris suggests that introgressive hybridization may have affected all three species in the past, and may be affecting C. lugubris lugubris today. Celeus elegans and C. flavescens are strongly polytypic, with distinct races or racial groups in secondary contact. Celeus lugubris is polytypic, with two moderately marked races"--P. [1].Item A review of the genera of grouse (Aves, Tetraoninae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2289(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1967) Short, Lester L."Egg color and size, and the natal plumages of grouse were studied. The various genera and species of grouse were grouped according to these characters, and the groupings are similar for both characters. An examination of the tails of North American grouse clearly indicates that the number of rectrices is too variable to be taxonomically useful at the generic level. One species (Dendragapus obscurus) exhibits almost the entire range of variation in rectrix number for all grouse (16-22 rectrices, versus 14-22 for all grouse). In addition to these features, attention was also devoted to the juvenile plumage and definitive adult plumages. An appraisal of the existing genera of grouse was based on these studies, and also on evaluation of other 'generic' characters, and consideration of biological phenomena such as interbreeding, predation selection on woodland versus grassland grouse, and various sympatric interactions. As a result, these five genera do not merit recognition: Lyrurus (merged in Tetrao), Canachites and Falcipennis (merged in Dendragapus), Pediocetes (merged in Tympanuchus), and Tetrastes (merged in Bonasa). The major groups of grouse are the stem Dendragapus group, including its offshoot the Lagopus-Tetrao subgorup, the prairie grouse group (Tympanuchus), the Bonasa group, and the Centrocercus group. The last three groups appear to have been independently derived from ancestral Dendragapus stock. There are recognized 16 species of grouse in six genera, characteristics of which are defined. Paleontological and zoogeographic evidence indicates a North American origin for grouse. This group comprises at most a subfamily of the Phasianidae, which evolved along with turkeys (Meleagrinae) and new World quail (Odontophorinae) from early North American phasianid stock. A diagnosis of the Tetraoninae is presented"--P. 33-34.Item Sympatry of red-breasted meadowlarks in Argentina, and the taxonomy of meadowlarks (Aves, Leistes, Pezites, and Sturnella). American Museum novitates ; no. 2349(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1968) Short, Lester L."The red-breasted meadowlarks Pezites militaris and P. defilippii come into contact during the breeding season in southern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. They behave as separate species, with moderate morphological differences and differences in various vocalizations, some of which probably function in species discrimination. A comparison of the morphology of these two species led to an investigation of the taxonomy of all the meadowlarks. Each of the genera Leistes, Pezites, and Sturnella is considered as comprising a single superspecies. Leistes superciliaris is considered a species, as is Pezites bellicosa. The close relationship among the meadowlarks, their monophyly, and the morphological progression they represent warrant considering all meadowlarks as congeneric. Sturnella Vieillot becomes the generic name for the group, necessitating a change in the name of Pezites militaris to Sturnella loyca, because Leistes militaris has priority and becomes Sturnella militaris"--P. 28-29.Item Systematics and behavior of some North American woodpeckers, genus Picoides (Aves). Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 145, article 1(New York : [American Museum of Natural History], 1971) Short, Lester L.Item Systematics and behavior of South American flickers (Aves, Colaptes). Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 149, article 1(New York : [American Museum of Natural History], 1972) Short, Lester L."The genus Colaptes is comprised of eight species, formerly arranged in the genera Colaptes, Nesoceleus, and Chrysoptilus. More or less distinct forms hybridize in secondary contacts within four of the eight species. The six South American species constitute two subgroups; the forest, or green, flickers, which are more arboreal and more closely resemble the ancestor of Colaptes, and the ground flickers, which are to a high degree terrestrially adapted, live in open country, and represent the most specialized species of the genus. The North American Colaptes auratus resembles the green flicker group more than it does the ground flickers; it is probably independently derived from an ancestor of the former group. Two well-marked races comprise the somewhat xeric-adapted C. atricollis, which is morphologically and behaviorally unspecialized. Several races are included in C. punctigula, which is partly ground-foraging and the only truly tropical flicker. Colaptes melanochloros forms a superspecies with punctigula, and it is comprised of two distinctive racial groups, by some authors considered species. The melanochloros group of more arboreal, woodland and savanna populations is arranged in two distinct races, melanochloros and nattereri, which intergrade over a large part of southern Brazil. Three much less strongly marked subspecies, melanolaimus, leucofrenatus, and nigroviridis, constitute the melanolaimus group, which inhabits more open country and woodland edges and is partly ground-foraging. The two groups interbreed freely in Corrientes, Argentina, in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and probably in south-central Paraguay, although rather effectively isolated by the Paraguay River in northern Paraguay. Colaptes pitius, a monotypic, forest-edge species of Patagonia and Chile, forages on the ground and nests either arboreally or terrestrially. The northern Andean C. rupicola is composed of a southern group of two moderately differentiated races, rupicola and puna, and a morphologically distinct north Peruvian race, cinereicapillus, which also differs somewhat in behavior from the southern forms. Contact between cinereicapillus and the more southern forms is limited topographically and ecologically; interbreeding occurs, with some introgression. This highland species is highly social, completely terrestrial, and is the only flicker that does not subsist mainly on ants. There are two rather weakly marked races of the terrestrial C. campestris, northern campestris with a black throat and southern campestroides with a white throat. These races have come into secondary contact recently, and they interbreed in the only major area of contact, central Paraguay. Slightly less social than rupicola, campestris nests in the ground or in fence posts or trees. It is morphologically and behaviorally distinctive, and it appears to be the most specialized of the flickers. The habits, vocalizations, and displays of the various flickers show many similarities. The ground flickers have the most distinct behavioral features, many of which (e.g., walking gait, sociality, yelping calls, wing-flicking display) seem to be adaptations for a terrestrial mode of life. Sympatry within the genus is uncommon and occurs only between distantly related species with divergent plumage patterns and habits. Greater speciation in South America compared with North America probably reflects greater opportunities for speciation on the former continent. Colaptes evolved from an arboreal, ant-eating woodpecker that resembled modern species of Piculus (e.g., rivolii); these genera are very closely related"--P. 5.Item Systematics of the avian genus Emberizoides (Emberizidae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2740(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1982) Eisenmann, Eugene, 1906-; Short, Lester L.; Partridge, William, ornithologist."The genus Emberizoides has long been maintained as monotypic, but with one polytypic species, E. herbicola. The late Argentine ornithologist William Partridge discriminated between large and small forms found together in Argentina, but his illness and untimely death prevented him from writing up the results of his observations. We studied Partrdige's specimens and others available from various museums and found that the 'small' and 'large' forms are broadly sympatric in eastern Paraguay, southern Brazil, and northeastern Argentina; they differ in various measurements, in dorsal and ventral markings and pattern, in color of the face, bill shape, and size of the legs and toes. The available name for the small form, a sibling species of large Emberizoides herbicola, is E. ypiranganus von Ihering and von Ihering, named by them as a subspecies of E. herbicola. Vocal and ecological data are limited but indicate that these species of Emberizoides have markedly different songs, that at least E. herbicola does not react to the song of E. ypiranganus, and that ypiranganus favors wetter marsh grass habitats than does herbicola. Extensions of these results with morphological studies of the other taxa included in Emberizoides strongly suggest that the Duida Mountain, Venezuela, form E. (herbicola) duidae, differs at least as much from races of E. herbicola as does E. ypiranganus, and especially from the subspecies E. herbicola sphenurus of the lowlands surrounding Duida Mountain. Northern races (the sphenurus group) of E. herbicola are divergent otherwise from the nominate southern race, but not to the extent of E. duidae and and E. ypiranganus. The song of the most divergent race, apurensis, of the sphenurus group, is recognizably like that of E. h. herbicola, São Paulo birds of which respond to it, and this group is best kept within the species E. herbicola. The genus Embernagra is closely similar to Emberizoides in plumage, and in structure, and may prove congeneric with it. Three species, monotypic Emberizoides duidae, polytypic E. herbicola, and monotypic E. ypiranganus thus seem seperable within Emberizoides. Factors involved in their evolutionary jistory are mentioned"--P. [1].Item Vocal behavior, morphology and hybridization of Australian spotted and yellow-rumped pardalotes (Aves, Pardalotus). American Museum novitates ; no. 2756(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1983) Short, Lester L.; Horne, Jennifer F. M.; Schodde, Richard."In the course of varied Australian field studies during 1979 and 1980 we were able to devote some effort to investigating the vocalizations and other behavior of the closely related, largely allopatric spotted pardalote (Pardalotus punctatus) in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria; and to a lesser extent the yellow-rumped pardalote (P. xanthopygus) in Victoria. A few specimens were collected of birds whose voices were recorded on tape. Morphological studies of these and other specimens demonstrate the similarity of the two taxa. Their vocal repertory includes seven major vocalizations. Of these, six are calls, five in punctatus and three in xanthopygus. Probably all six calls are found in both forms. Differences in those of the calls found in both are nil or slight. Males of both species sing songs and abbreviated songs similar generally in quality and tone, but differing between the two taxa in details of structure, pitch, and temporal arrangement of elements. Some vocalizations intermediate in form, pitch and timing, together with morphological data, indicate convergence of their characters in areas of contact in Victoria. Three of four specimens collected in Victoria are hybrids or likely hybrids as determined by their morphology and vocalizations. The vocal repertory as presented for the two taxa may be complete, but more data are needed, especially from P. xanthopygus. The extent of their hybridization, and hence their taxonomic status remain to be established fully, since they meet in three different regions (southwestern Australia, South Australia, and southeastern Australia), and the only detailed studies, reported here, cover but one region, and that only partly"--P. [1].Item Vocal displays and some interactions of Kenyan honeyguides (Indicatoridae) with barbets (Capitonidae). American Museum novitates ; no. 2684(New York, N.Y. : American Museum of Natural History, 1979) Short, Lester L.; Horne, Jennifer F. M."In the course of studies of barbets in Kenya we were able to obseve the behavior of five species of honeyguides: Prodotiscus (insignis) zambesiae, Indicator indicator, I. variegatus, I. minor, and a small species tentatively identified as I. narokensis. Previously unknown or little known vocalizations of four of these were recorded on tape and analyzed. Much of the behavior and many of the vocalizations occurred during interactions of the honeyguides with various species of barbets that in most cases were not breeding. A female Indicator indicator engaged in an encounter with Stactolaema olivacea, I. variegatus responded to playback of the small Pogoniulus simplex and one and at times two I. minor underwent sustained interactions with three Lybius leucocephalus. Playback of Lybius torquatus duets stimulated the barbets to duet frequently, which attracted both Indicator minor and I. narokensis; some sustained interactions resulted. Our findings add to the knowledge of honeyguides, and particularly demonstrate that strong interactions with potential host species (barbets) of the nest-parasitic honeyguides occur, and may take place in the absence of breeding activity of the barbets. Various questions are raised by the observations, and playback is advocated as a technique for fututre investigations that may answer these questions"--P. [1].Item A zoogeographic analysis of the South American chaco avifauna. Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 154, article 3(New York : American Museum of Natural History, 1975) Short, Lester L."The South American chaco is centrally situated on the border of the tropics and is xeric-adapted woodland with some open areas, wet places, and savanna. Driest in the center and wettest in the eastern pantanal savanna, the chaco experiences occasional frost throughout. About 409 avian species, including 22 that barely reach its borders, are resident or breed in the chaco. These number 218 nonpasserine birds, 100 suboscine passerines, including 52 tyrant flycatchers, 20 oscine passerines of Old World groups, and 71 New World nine-primaried oscines. Each species is treated taxonomically (based on a systematic reappraisal of each taxon), ecologically, and distributionally. There seem to be more superspecies in the chaco and in the tropics generally than in temperate North America. Most chaco species (252) are endemic in South America, but 28 percent reach Middle America, 12 percent attain North America, and 3 percent reach the Old World. A transatlantic distributional history is possible for as many as one-seventh the number of chaco species reaching North America. Only one species (Eudromia formosa) is endemic to the chaco; 11 others mainly occupy that area; five subspecies are endemic. Such low endemicity reflects the central location and accessibility of the chaco, and probably rather drastic historical changes in its extent and location. Major range disjunctions in chaco species and superspecies frequently involve northern South America, with Amazonia the apparent barrier. Isolates in the Andes and in the coastal Peru region are fewer, but well differentiated. The caatinga is another area of differentiation. Zones of avian interaction (70) and narrow range disjunctions (28) involving chaco birds show isolates and former isolates mainly in southeastern Brazil, in the campo-caatinga region, and in the Andes, indicating that barriers (e.g., grassland, water) exist or formerly existed between the paired forms. Significantly more nine-primaried oscines and fewer nonpasserine birds show interactions and narrow disjunctions compared with proportions of these species in the chaco avifauna. This perhaps reflects greater speciation and radiation in the nine-primaried oscines, a group still relatively new to southern South America. Primary intergradation in the 276 polytypic chaco species indicates the coincidence of racial borders with major environmental features such as the Amazon and Paraguay rivers, and with certain regions (campo cerrado, Andean base). Major size differences among races of 81 chaco species generally agree (69 cases) with Bergmann's Ecogeographic Rule, larger forms occurring south of smaller races. The chaco avifauna largely is derived from elsewhere, particularly from other xeric regions, savanna formations and edges or ecotones involving forested regions. The chaco nevertheless has been important in furthering range extension and the ultimate isolation of some xeric-adapted birds and species favoring edges and ecotones. There is a need for further in-depth taxonomic-zoogeographic investigations of particular Neotropical avian groups and regional South American zoogeographic analyses"--P. 167.